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Inductive reasoning and inductive fallacies: how do I reason from evidence?

Inductive reasons from evidence about some members of a class in order to form a conclusion about all members of that class. Inductive can be done through sensory observation, enumeration, analogous reasoning, causal reasoning, and from pattern recognition.

There are five rules for evaluating the reliability of hypotheses based on statistical samplings.

1. The greater the size of the sample, the greater is its probability of being representative of the whole of a class.
2. A sampling must be representative in order to lead to reliable results.
3. One counter example can refute a generalization arrived at through inductive reasoning.
4. Statistical evidence should be offered in sufficient detail for verification.
5. When evaluating the results of polls, it is important to examine both the polling agency and the polling question for bias.

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Fallacies: what’s a faulty argument?

A Fallacies is an idea which many people believe to be true, but which is in fact false because it is based on incorrect information or reasoning. Appeals to feat and pity seek to persuade through affecting emotions rather than through sound rational support for an argument. Personal attack refutes another argument by attacking the opponent rather than addressing the argument itself. circular reasoning is the assertion or repeated assertion of a conclusion as though the conclusion were a reason.

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Argument: what’s a good argument?

An argument is a statement or set of statements that you use in order to try to convince people that your opinion about something is correct. In argument critical reading is an active endeavor that requires involvement, interaction with questions and evaluation.
Arguments state and defend a claim. Sometimes they try to persuade.

1. Are the reasons adequate to support the conclusion?
2. Are there any hidden assumptions in this argument?
3. Are any central words ambiguous or slanted to incite prejudice?
4. Are there fallacies in its reasoning?
5. Is any important information or evidence omitted?
6. Is any information false, contradictory, or irreconcilable?

These questions summarize standards for judging the strengthens and weaknesses of argument

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Viewpoint: what’s the filter?

Viewpoint is the way that they think about things in general, or the way they think about a particular thing. When we know our own viewpoint and understand the viewpoints of others as well, we can communicate best. Unconscious viewpoints include the egocentric, ethnocentric, religiocentric, androcentric, and anthropocentric. To understand, we have to know that an assumption can be unconscious.

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Evaluations: what’s judged?

To think critically, we need to be aware of how feelings influence evaluations and result in judgments that may not be fare.
It must be said that although our human tendency to rush to judgment can make it very difficult for us to be fair, nevertheless we still must continuously evaluate our experiences in order to survive.
Evaluations can help us react quickly to situations where our survival is at stake.
Connotation transmits evaluations that can confuse our thinking.
If we think critically, we can know how connotations affect out feelings

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Opinions: what’s believed?

Opinion has a lot of meanings; judgments, advice, generalizations, or sentiments.
Critical thinking needs that we recognize how it is different responsible and irresponsible opinion.
Critical thinkers have standards for judging which opinions that require responsible support and those that do not.
Public opinion polls can be used to determine public sentiment on social and political issues as well as to manipulate public sentiment.

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Assumptions: what’s taken for granted?


Assumption is thinking we accept as being true.
Assumptions can be unconscious and unwarranted, and these assumptions sometimes make wrong reasoning.
Conscious and warranted assumptions make useful tools for solving problem
Assumption and Inference are deeply intertwined, our assumptions come from our belief our inference comes form our assumptions this basics of how human nature comes up with logical reasoning.